Hicks et al. The terminology associated with fire patterns and their use in origin determination has evolved over the past 80years, so the first task was to identify any separations within the work to better organize the presentation of the literature. In 1997, a formal heat and flame vector analysis was conducted with three of the USFA fire pattern tests. Clean burn damage located on the wall opposite of the door opening (not at the area of origin) extended from the floor to the ceiling and had an approximate 6-foot base. Only one article was identified related to the use of visible char appearance in identifying varying DOFD where quantitative measures were attempted (Keith and Smith 1984). Consequently, a new optical measurement method was developed to use with digital photographs and digital image analysis. An optical measurement method was developed to arrive at optical properties of smoke deposited out of a smoke layer onto glass filters. Building Research Institute of Japan., p 27, Keith, Smith (1984) Analysis of Char Patterns Known as Alligatoring. As the smoke exits the opening, it expands in volume and rises. This study focused on the impact of ventilation on fire patterns and the ability of fire investigators to use fire patterns to determine the quadrant of the room where the fire began. A study conducted in 2012 examined the effect of carpet underlayment/carpet pad on post-flashover fire, floor patterns (Wood et al. The results confirmed that the use of this method was appropriate for these three test fires (Shanley et al. They confirmed that 6.6lbf (3kgf) of force was best at matching the Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) chemical analysis of dehydration found in the Mann and Putaansuu study (2010). 1977). 1977). 1997). Developing a process for the objective identification of areas requiring further attention during fire investigation that is universally accepted by the community is recommended to increase the reliability and accuracy of fire origin determinations. The room burns produced patterns that were both consistent with the origin as well as burn patterns and V-patterns that were inconsistent with the origin. National Institute of Justice, Report 60197, Washington D.C. (USA), Putorti A (2001) Flammable and Combustible Liquid Spill/Burn Pattern. In the early days of fire investigations a common rule among fire investigators was that the visible observation of large shiny blisters of wood char indicated fast fires and that small dull blisters indicated a slower fire, which assisted investigators to conclude that a fire was incendiary or not (Boudreau et al. This causes the plume to widen horizontally in the upper layer causing damage to the intersecting surfaces. As such, the recognition and identification of lines or areas of demarcation and the elevation changes with those lines of demarcation capture the essence of these shapes without using geometric shapes as universal descriptors. The test was conducted in a single compartment measuring 14ft by 12ft by 8ft high (4.26m3.66m2.4m) that resembled a residential bedroom with one open doorway to the exterior. This is the reason that many fire investigation texts commonly refer to fire moving up and outward (DeHaan and Icove 2011; Kennedy 1959; Kennedy (1977); Kirk 1969; Rethoret 1945). Another series of full-scale fire tests was conducted with funding provided by the National Institute of Justice (Putorti 1997). Magnitude refers to the degree of damage to the material. 2012). National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. (USA), Carman S (2008) Burn Pattern Development in Post-Flashover Fires. three dimensional fire patterns displayed on both horizontal and vertical services. Scientific evidence is always incomplete to some degree, which means there is a measure of uncertainty associated within each analysis. All processes used for origin determination should undergo reliability and validity testing (Gorbett 2015). In addition, they may not know where or how to obtain additional information, or how to judge the value of the information in the context of the overall decision. Match. The compartment size, ventilation opening and setup were similar to the 2008 work. Thus, different locations within the compartment may be receiving different temperatures at different times throughout the fire. The measuring pin is constructed of a 2mm cobalt drill bit. Schroeders results varied widely as to depths of char in relation to the duration and intensity of exposed heat flux, which led him to conclude that wood was not a good indicator for predicting intensity of duration of exposures. Ngu did not test this methodology for application toward full-scale fires for investigation purposes. It is suggested from this literature review that the overall reasoning process for evaluating fire damage for determining an area of origin consists of the following seven steps (Gorbett 2015): Identifying the value in further analysis of a surface or compartment; Identification of the varying degrees of fire damage (DOFD) along the surfaces of the compartment and contents; Identifying clusters and trends of damage (fire patterns); Interpreting the causal factors for the generation of the fire patterns; Testing the hypothetical area(s) of origin; and. Hughes Associates, Maryland (USA), Bieber P (2014) Anatomy of Wrongful Arson Conviction: Sentinel Event Analysis in Fire Investigations. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, SFPE (1999) Assessment of Flame Radiation to External Targets from Pool Fires. Often, a saddle burn is caused by a burning liquid on the floor or radiant heat from a material close to the floor. 2012). Most of the earlier literature supported the idea that specific patterns were indicative of causal links or to the speed of the fire, which was mostly linked to incendiary fires (e.g. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. Both of these misconceptions have fallen into disrepute and are no longer prevalent within the current profession (Bieber 2014). (1997)) reported that suppression-generated patterns, those caused by water spray from a fire department hose line, were easily identifiable in their test series. The bulk of this research can be found within the SFPE Engineering Guide, Assessing Flame Radiation to External Targets from Pool Fires (SFPE 1999). (2013) conducted a series of compartment fire tests with ignitable liquids poured and evaluated the persistence of such a pattern through a compartment fire. %%EOF The cited basis for this pattern is the principles of fluid flow and the buoyant nature of heated gases. From this work, the researchers used gravimetric measurements of these filters to demonstrate and validate an analytical model for smoke deposition based on thermophoresis. 6, 4th edn. The fuels used for their experiments included a natural gas burner, gasoline pool fire and polyurethane foam. 1997). Thus, the lining materials for the walls, ceiling and floor, as well as the various materials that make up the contents within the compartment, are damaged by this exposure to the products of combustion. The section on char suggested that the investigator go backward from the areas of little char to deeper char establishing the path of fire clearly (Straeter and Crawford 1955). Carman (2008) noted similar areas of damage of great magnitude directly opposite door openings and within the inflow of the air from this door. walls) in the form of a funnel or cone with the vertex at the bottom. Proximity requires that the varying fire effects be within the same vicinity to each other. The fire burned for approximately two minutes post-flashover. Proceedings of The 3rd International Conference on Performance-Based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods, SFPE, Bethesda, MD (USA), Mealy C (2013) Ignitable Liquid Fuel Fires in Buildings A Study of Fire Dynamics. The upper layer is a term commonly given to the collection of smoke and heated gases during the progression of the fire near the upper regions of the compartment, typically near the ceiling. Decision support frameworks are derived from the field of decision analysis, as well as from uncertainty analysis and risk analysis. [1] In this graph the axes would be availability of intuition (being th Y-axis) and level of expertise (being the X-axis), instead of the skill level (being the Y-axis) and time (being the X-axis). However, this area of damage was not identified in comparison studies performed in acquired structures where the opening was connected to an adjacent compartment within the house. As the temperature of the gases in the upper layer increases and the duration of influence between these gases and the lining surfaces increase, the heat flux imposed on these surfaces reaches a critical threshold that begins damaging the material and creating fire effects attributed to the upper gas layer. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineers, NFPA, MA, Wieczorek C, Vandsburger U, Floyd J (2004) An evaluation of the global equivalence ratio concept for compartment fires: data analysis methods. In 1985, Cooke and Ide put forward a process termed radius of error (Cooke and Ide 1985). This was also observed on walls opposite door openings (Shanley et al. There are a total of 17 fire effects listed in NFPA (2014) that serve as the base list of observations for fire investigators (Table1). Volume I, National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 802054, Gaithersburg, MD, Raiffa H (1968) Decision Analysis. This pattern is not an accurate indicator of an accelerant, or arson. The Mealy, Wolfe and Gottuk study used the Ngu force gauge to ensure that the user performed their measurements with similar force (Mealy et al. This quote, however, is not to generalize that the area of origin is to be equated with the area of greatest thermal damage outside of this specific test series. The fire pattern studies revealed that the upper layer damage is very difficult to identify after the fire has transitioned into ventilation-controlled conditions. The constant force is applied to the tool by two 3.3lb constant force springs. The gauge is capable of reading measurements to 0.0005 (0.01mm). Each fire pattern study has the three most common flashover correlations summarized within Additional file 1. 1997; Carman 2008; Gorbett et al. Fire Safety Science Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium, Elsevier Applied Science, New York, pp 657667, Wolfe A, Mealy C, Gottuk D (2009) Fire Dynamics and Forensic Analysis of Limited Ventilation Compartment Fires Volume 1: Experimental. Other penetration patterns have arisen, which dealt more with determining the direction of fire spread from top down or bottom up. The fire plume is typically the highest temperature zone within the compartment, which can lead to significant damage (Beyler 1986; Lattimer 2008). Fire Technology 39:207224, Hopkins R, Gorbett G, Kennedy P (2007) Fire Pattern Persistence Through Post-Flashover Compartment Fires. Riahi studied the soot deposition characteristics of three different fuels in bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum wallboard lined wall (Riahi and Beyler 2011; Riahi 2012; Riahi et al. For more information, contact: Fire Findings L.L.C. Conversely, as the smoke moves away from the room of origin the temperatures will decrease, which causes the smoke to descend within the compartment causing lighter soot to deposit across the entire elevation of wall surfaces. In 2011 three test fires were conducted that varied between single and multiple ventilation openings (Claflin 2014). (2013). Title: FIRE PATTERNS. Plenary Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. increases. There was no significant damage identified around the window ventilation, as the researchers discussed that this vent served primarily as an outflow for the heated gases, while the doorway served as the inflow due to the location of the neutral plane. flaming combustion detached from the fuel item or package), High Temperature lining surfaces Radiant heat transfer (absorption/reflection). Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 9:3235, Crofton, MD, Taylor R (1986) Flammable and Combustible Liquid Characteristics in Certain Types of Fires Part 2. Smoke patterns are deposits of carbon on walls and ceilings, carried there in the heat plume. The rooms were instrumented with heat flux gauges, thermocouples and gas sampling probes. Clean burn damage also occurred along the wall near the doorway opening in the fire with the longest full room involvement burning duration. Since the beginning of fire investigations, the focus on how to determine the area of origin for a fire was to try and use damage to work backwards in an attempt to recreate the development of the fire within the investigators mind. Additional researchers and texts disavowed the use of this visible observation and its connection to the speed of fire (Cooke and Ide 1985; Ettling 1990; NFPA 1992). The elements of the fire pattern definition are further explained here: distinct area of damage or cluster of fire effects the area of damage must be clearly distinguishable from other areas of damage through the identification of line(s) of demarcation. Particulates and aerosols are deposited and heat is transferred in the same direction and flow as the smoke. magnitude of damage, type of fire effect, color, texture) and are in close proximity to each other. Many of the studies discuss the production of unburned hydrocarbons (UHCs) during under-ventilated conditions that result in unburned fuel filling the compartment and undergoing combustion only where sufficient UHC concentrations encounter sufficient oxygen (Beyler 1986; Utiskul and Quintiere (2005); Utiskul 2007; Thomas and Bennets 1999). 2013). Given the history of using fire patterns within the fire investigation profession, it was reasonable that they would also be included in the first edition (1992), and all subsequent editions of NFPA 921 Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations. Fire investigators commonly use the lack of thermal damage behind or under contents, known as protected areas, as evidence that the damage was caused by an upper layer. (2004) had flames resulting from a lack of mixing within the compartment, which has also been identified in compartments with combustible linings (Drysdale 2011). Their example is as follows, if the investigator decides he has located a seat of fire within a radius of error of 1m, he is certain that the original seat of fire lays within an area having one metres [sic] radius (i.e. 1977). However, most inverse problems are approached by first establishing direct solutions for well-posed problems. et al. The compartment can reach a state of full-room involvement without transitioning through flashover, or become ventilation-limited and never achieve full-room involvement state (Francis and Chen 2012). 2009-DN-BX-K232. This study focused on the effects where the paper had been burned away (consumed) and where the paper had been peeled up (penetration). These studies focused on fire pattern reproducibility, pattern persistence through flashover, the use of fire patterns in origin determination and the influence of initial, low HRR fuel on fire pattern production. The tests were able to burn in the full-room involvement state for 7, 140 and 111s respectively. hVn1ylTQ]BRBJ deR,B}VgHS(6-gl eU48+8 These geometric shapes are still currently used within the profession, however, many of the myths associated with their interpretations have fallen into disrepute. Ventilation-generated fire patterns have been described in the literature as having a slight influence during fuel-controlled conditions, but become the predominant issue with the location and magnitude of damage after the compartment fire is ventilation-controlled (Shanley et al. Reprinted with permission from the author. They appear between the affected area and adjacent, less-affected areas (NFPA 2014). Therefore, it is expected that soot deposition on wall surfaces to be greatest in thickness and higher in elevation closer to the room of origin and lesser in thickness and lower in elevation as one moves away from the room of origin. 2006). In March of 1997 four full-size compartment test fires were conducted in furnished bedrooms (Milke and Hill 1997). within an area of 3.14 square metres [sic]) (Cooke and Ide 1985). Interpretation of the causal factors for the generation of the fire patterns was next appraised. Around the late 1970s there was a movement within the profession to describe fire patterns by descriptions of their geometric shapes (e.g. Wood has been and remains a common material used for construction of structures and contents. The only point of contention then would be the manner and reason in which the ventilation opening was created. This type of damage was noted in the USFA study with specificity (Shanley et al. The literature was received from different databases, primarily ScienceDirect (2012), International Symposium on Fire Investigations conference proceedings, Fire and Arson Investigator-Journal for the International Association of Arson Investigators and fire investigation textbooks. The conical fire pattern theory evolved into a more systematized manner by the Kennedys (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Gorbett G, Hicks W, Tinsley A (2013) Fire patterns with low heat release rate initial fuels. The statistics can be found in the Excel Spreadsheet associated with this review paper. 2003). Example of a Heat and Flame Vector Analysis Diagram (fire origin located in center of couch-fire test conducted at EKU by author). The further the fuel item burning was from the wall surface, the lines of demarcation would be more subtle in contrast and would be more round in angle in the shape of a U. Kennedy and Kennedy (1985) were also the first to propose that damage would be in the shape of a triangular, columnar, or conical shape after the flame plume had intersected a wall surface within a compartment. Gregory E Gorbett. More validity and reliability studies are required for these methods. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. (USA), Oullette J (2008) ATF FRL Fire Test Report 3589, 3593, 3595. Journal of Testing and Evaluation 40. doi:10.1520/JTE104261, Madrzykowski D, Kerber S (2009) Fire Fighting Tactics under Wind Driven Conditions: Laboratory Experiments. When the gases rise and expand, they begin interacting with the lining surfaces and contents in the flow of the fluid. So you might have to check the size of the breakout candle on higher . This was the first published work that outlined how to develop a legend and diagram as demonstrative aids for applying the heat and flame vector analysis. Putorti reported, comparisons of the conditions of the rooms and furnishings after the experiments resulted in the determination of several similarities, as well as many differences, between experiments with the same method of ignition (Putorti 1997). Accessed January 1, 2015, Morgan M, Henrion M (1990) Uncertainty: A Guide to Dealing with Uncertainty in Quantitative Risk and Policy Analysis. First Asian Conference on Fire Science and Technology, China, Quintiere J (1995) Compartment Fire Modeling. NFPA 921 is recognized as establishing the standard of care for the fire investigation profession and is the only consensus document that exists for fire investigators. Fire Safety Journal 11:5375, London (UK), Beyler C (2009) Analysis of the Fire Investigation Methods and Procedures Used in the Criminal Arson Cases Against Ernest Ray Willis and Cameron Todd Willingham. Correct determination of the origin depends on the correct. Dissertation, The University of Edinburgh, Kahneman D, Tversky A (1974) Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases. Dissertation, University of Canterbury, NIJ (2009) Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward. 2009-DN-BX-K232. Putorti (2001) performed a series of experiments that evaluated the damage to a variety of floor surfaces (carpet, wood and vinyl) with varying volumes of ignitable liquids used in the open. Key aspects of a decision support framework include identification of decision objectives, attributes (criteria) which are important to the decision problem and the weighting (importance) of the attributes to the decision given the uncertainty and variability in the data and relationship between the attributes. This first edition was also the first time fire patterns were organized into one document. This definition is insufficient compared to how the profession currently uses the term. The production increases substantially as the compartment fire becomes ventilation-limited. Each of the seven steps will have a process or multiple processes that assist in moving the decision maker through the overall process of determining an area of origin. He found that the damage from the flame plume would extend approximately the width of the fuel for 100kW fires that did not have a ceiling jet form and 3 times the width of the fuel with 300kW fires that did have flame extension under the ceiling. However, most of these documents also cautioned against relying solely on the use of visible observations and encouraged the investigator to take samples of fire debris for analysis. The final two tests were performed after multiple television sets and electronic appliances were placed on wood stands and on the floor in a burn room containing an upholstered chair and area rugboth of these tests were allowed to progress into full-room involvement and were not extinguished until 4min past flashover (Hoffmann et al. In fact, Kirk was very adamant that investigators should not conclude that the damage was from an ignitable liquid as such an interpretation was more often incorrect than otherwise (Kirk 1969). There are several effects that may occur to gypsum wallboard when exposed to heat and fire conditions, including: color changes, soot deposition, charred paper, paper consumed and clean burn (Fig. The prescribed process by Mealy (2013) was time consuming due to the requirement on the user to be extremely careful in watching the gauge and then marking the probe with a piece of tape to document the depth, thus introducing potential error. NFPA 921 states that there are three basic causes of fire patterns: heat, deposition and consumption (NFPA 2014). 2014). In this study, experimental samples of gypsum wallboard were exposed to various heat fluxes at varying durations using the ASTM E1354, Cone Calorimeter radiant heater. There are four logical components to the literature review presented: The first part of the review describes the work completed for establishing a degree of fire damage assessment for commonly encountered materials in structure fires. 2005; Morvan et al. Fire investigation textbooks, guides and studies describe the use of lines or areas of demarcation in assessing damage. 1983; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985; Cooke and Ide 1985). Multiple carpet pads were tested. Many of the firefighting factors would not necessarily develop new patterns that have unique characteristics. More experienced fire investigators would mentor less experienced fire investigators, unfortunately in some cases, passing on what has since become realized as a collection of myths (NFPA 2014). However, no formal procedure has been developed, including: how to determine a direction, how to incorporate compartment fire dynamics into the process and how to make an area of origin conclusion based on the results. (1997)) described the phenomenon that ventilation to the room was able to change the truncated cone shape expected from the flame and fire plume by leaning or pushing of one side of the pattern away from the source of ventilation (Shanley et al. 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